Amphibian Decline

Frogs have existed on Earth for 300 million years, but 43% of all amphibian species are declining. Habitat loss, introduced predators, and environmental changes are some of the main reasons for their decline.

The Yosemite toad (Bufo canorus) is an endangered amphibian from the Sierra Nevada, California, USA. © 2004 Pierre Fidenci


The critically endangered Puerto Rican crested toad (Bufo lemur) occupies mostly rocky limestone outcrops of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Gorda Island. © 2006 Paddy Ryan


The critically endangered Chinhai salamander (Echinotriton chinhaiensis) lead a largely hidden terrestrial life. © 1999 Max Sparreboom


Rarely observed the critically endangered Baracoa dwarf frog (Eleutherodactylus orientalis) from Cuba is one of the smallest frog in the world. © 2004 Pierre Fidenci

Endangered amphibians worldwide

Amphibians have existed on earth for about 300 million years, yet within the last several decades more than 120 species are thought to have disappeared for ever because of human activities. Amphibian populations have declined dramatically around the world since the 1950s even in virgin parts (e.g., national parks). This pervasive decline is the results of local, regional, and global human induced causes. In 2006, a total of 442, 738, and 631 amphibian species were classified as critically endangered (imminent risk of extinction), endangered (very high risk of extinction in the wild), and vulnerable (facing a high risk of extinction in the wild). Overall, 1 in 3 amphibians are at risk of extinction! Local impacts These impacts include habitat modification, amphibian collection, and non-native species introduction. Habitat modification can be divided into three types: habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation, and habitat degradation. Regional impacts These impacts include habitat modification, amphibian collection, and non-native species introduction. Habitat modification can be divided into three types: habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation, and habitat degradation. Global impacts These impacts include environmental estrogens, climate change, and diseases (e.g. fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis). Data from IUCN, Conservation International, and NatureServe. 2006. Global Amphibian Assessment Endangered amphibian species are found near all over the planet (Table 2), however, some regions of the world have been more affected than others. The worst places include Haiti, montane southeastern Chiapas, Mexico through central Guatemala, montane Costa Rica and western Panama, the Andes of Colombia and Ecuador, and the central portion of the Atlantic Forest in eastern Brazil. At the regional scale, amphibians in the Caribbean are most threatened (84% of the region’s 171 species) due to high habitat loss, followed by Mesoamerica (685 species) , South America (2,065 species), and North America (262 species). Countries with the highest number of threatened amphibians (more than 100 amphibians per country) include Colombia (209), Mexico (196), Ecuador (163), and Brazil (110). Distribution of Threatened Amphibians in Central America, Northern South America, and the Caribbean Data from IUCN, Conservation International, and NatureServe. 2006. Global Amphibian Assessment Table 2. Examples of worldwide critically endangered amphibians Data IUCN 2006 Here are nine of the most endangered species of amphibians. Eight of the species are still being studied or bred in the Center for Conservation and Research at Omaha's Henry Doorly Zoo & Aquarium. One success, the eastern hellbender, has been released to the wild, although some of them are on exhibit at the zoo. The “at zoo” numbers are only for the Omaha zoo. The “in the wild” numbers are estimates from scientific counts. Puerto Rican crested toad Native to: Puerto Rico Adult size: 3-4 inches Number in wild: 300 Number at zoo: 48 Loss of habitat has brought it close to extinction; it is critically endangered. Zoo is breeding them and has sent 11,000 tadpoles to Puerto Rico, but only 1 percent will become toads. Mississippi gopher frog Native to: Mississippi Adult size: 3 inches Number in wild: 60-100 Number at zoo: 303 Loss of habitat is its enemy. It has only one breeding pond in Mississippi. Zoo is testing Vitamin A as a nutritional supplement. Blue spotted salamander Native to: Iowa and states east and north of Iowa Adult size: 3½-5½ inches Number at zoo: 12 Doing well in eastern states but not Iowa. Attempts by the zoo to breed the Iowa salamanders in captivity failed; the zoo is working with Iowa Department of Natural Resources. Panamanian golden frog Native to: Panama Adult size: 2-3 inches Number in wild: 0 Number at zoo: 53 IUCN lists it as critically endangered. Zoo is having success breeding in captivity and is about to send some of its crop to other zoos. Can't release into the wild in Panama at this time. Kihansi spray toad Native to: Tanzania Adult size: 1-1½ inches Number in wild: 0 Number at zoo: 141 Habitat in waterfall spray zones has dried up. The zoo has created artifical spray zones and Tanzania is duplicating those. So if the toads will breed in captivity, they can be released in Tanzania. Utah Boreal toad Native to: one colony found on plateau Utah Adult size: 2-5 inches Number in wild: unknown Number at zoo: 23 The toad occupies 1 percent of its historic breeding places in Utah. The zoo has had some breeding success but chytrid fungus is its biggest danger. Wyoming toad Native to: Wyoming Adult size: 2 inches Number in wild: One small colony in protected area in Wyoming Number at zoo: 23 The zoo has released nearly 3,000 tadpoles and toadlets in Wyoming (remember 1 percent survival rate). The chytrid fungus remains a threat to its survival. Striped newt Native to: Two genetic groups native to Florida and Georgia Adult size: 2-4 inches Number in wild: unknown Number at zoo: 200 of one genetic group (eastern) Zoo has successfully bred its newts; the original 12 created 500. Western genetic group is smaller, more vulnerable. Eastern hellbender Native to: Ohio Adult size: 11½-20 inches Number in wild: unknown Number at zoo: 8 The salamander is successfully being bred in captivity and released into the wild. Chytrid fungus is a danger to it, along with siltation of habitat and chemical runoff in streams.

The Three Little Pigs

The Three Little Pigs

Once upon a time there were three little pigs. 1, 2, 3.

The first little pig left home. He met a man with some straw. He said, “Please, Sir, sell me some straw for a house.” And he did. So the little pig built his house of straw.

The next day the second little pig left home. He met a man with some sticks. He said, “Please, Sir, sell me some sticks for a house.” And he did. So the little pig built his house of sticks.

Then the third little pig left home. He met a man with some bricks. He said, “Please Sir, sell me some bricks for a house.” And he did. So the little pig built his house of bricks.

Along came Mr Wolf. He saw the straw house and said, “Little Pig, Little Pig, let me in!” “No, no, no, said the little Pig. “By the hair of my chimney chin chin, I will not let you in!”

“Then I’ll huff and I’ll puff and I’ll blow your house in!” So he huffed and he puffed and he blew in the straw house. The first little pig ran to the second little pig’s house of sticks.

Along came Mr Wolf. He saw the house of sticks and said, “Little Pig, Little Pig, let me in.” No, no, no, “said the second little pig, ” By the hair of my chimney chin chin, I will not let you in!”

“Then I’ll huff and I’ll puff and I’ll blow your house in!” So he huffed and he puffed and he blew in the house of sticks. The two little pigs ran to the third little pig’s house of bricks.

Along came Mr Wolf. He saw the house of bricks and said, “Little Pig, Little Pig, let me in!” No, no, no,” said the third little pig.” By the hair of my chimney chin chin, I will not let you in!” Then I’ll huff and I’ll puff and I’ll blow your house in!” So he huffed and he puffed and he huffed and he puffed, but he could not blow in the house of bricks.

Mr Wolf climbed onto the roof. He went down the chimney, but the little pigs lit a fire and boiled a big pot of water. Splash! Mr Wolf fell into the water and that was the end of him.

The three little pigs joined hands and danced around in a circle singing, “Who’s afraid of the big bad wolf, the big bad wolf, the big bad wolf? Who’s afraid of the big bad wolf?

Tra – la – la – la – la.

I made up a song for this story to the tune of 3 Blind Mice

Three little pigs, three little pigs

Each built a house, each built a house

The big bad wolf he huffed and puffed

The straw and stick houses were not so tough

Only the brick house was strong enough

For three little pigs, three little pigs.

LETTER P

POPLAR TREE 
Poplar trees, with their distinctive slender profile, were often planted in order to act as wind breaks and to screen railway stations and industrial estates. On the layout their narrow width makes them very useful. 
Poplar trees are extremely desirable for homeowners looking to infuse their yards with shade and beauty. The trees are members of the Populus genus. They are fast-growing and thrive in warm conditions. Poplar trees are also very easy to care for which is why they are popular with people who lack landscaping experience.

The Many Looks of the Poplar Tree

Poplar Tree Leaves

• 1
• 2
• 3
• 4
• 5
• 6

POPPY 

Pussy willow is a name given to many of the smaller species of the genus Salix (willows and sallows) when their furry catkins are young in early spring. These species include (among many others):

• Goat willow or goat sallow (Salix caprea), a small tree native to northern Europe and northwest Asia.
• Grey willow or grey sallow (Salix cinerea), a small tree native to northern Europe
• American pussy willow (Salix discolor), native to northern North America.

Before the male catkins of these species come into full flower they are covered in fine, greyish fur, leading to a fancied likeness to tiny cats, also known as “pussies”. The catkins appear long before the leaves, and are one of the earliest signs of spring. At other times of year trees of most of these species are usually known by their ordinary names.

Cultural traditions

Pussy willow used as Lunar New Year decoration.

Since the Chinese like numerous blossoms on a branch, the many buds of the pussy willow make it a favourite flower for Chinese New Year. The fluffy white blossoms of the pussy willow resemble silk, and they soon give forth young shoots the color of green jade. Chinese enjoy such signs of growth, which represent the coming of prosperity.^[1] Towards the Lunar New Year period, stalks of the plant may be bought from wet market vendors or supermarkets.

Once unbundled within one's residence, the stalks are frequently decorated with gold and red ornaments - ornaments with colours and text that signify prosperity and happiness. Felt pieces of red, pink and yellow are also a common decoration in Southeast Asia.

Xie Daoyun's comparison of snow and willow catkins is a famous line of poetry and is used to refer to precocious young female poets.^{[citation needed]}

The flowering shoots of pussy willow are used both in Europe and America for spring religious decoration on Palm Sunday, as a replacement forpalm branches, which do not grow that far north.

Ukrainian and Russian Orthodox, Ruthenian, Polish, Bavarian and Austrian Roman Catholics, Finnish Lutherans and Orthodox and various otherEastern European peoples carry pussy willows on Palm Sunday instead of palm branches. This custom has continued to this day among Ukrainian Orthodox, Romanian Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Ruthenian Catholic, Ukrainian Catholic, Kashubian Catholic and Polish Catholic emigrees to North America. Sometimes, on Palm Sunday they will bless both palms and pussy willows in church. The branches will often be preserved throughout the year in the family's icon corner.

Pussy willow also plays a predominant role in Polish Dyngus Day (Easter Monday) observances, continued also among Polish-Americans, especially in the Buffalo, New York area.

Tree Identification Terminology

Terminology - Leaf, Twig, and Fruit Characteristics
Used in Tree Identification http://www.clemson.edu/extfor/publications/bul117/characteristics.htm

Familiarization with the following diagrams and terms will make the leaf key and tree descriptions easier to understand and use.  Information provided here is divided into the following topics:

general terms leaf forms anatomy of a twig

anatomy of broad leaves leaf arrangement leaf margins

leaf tipsleaf basestypes of fruits

---

GENERAL TERMS

leaf — a lateral outgrowth from the stem whose primary function is the manufacturing of foodtwig -- a young woody stem to which leaves and buds are attached branch -- a thicker, older woody stem to which twigs are attached trunk -- the main vertical stem of a tree fruit — the seed-bearing portion of a plant deciduous — trees on which all leaves fall at the end of every season of growth evergreen — trees on which leaves remain attached for more than one year

---

LEAF FORMS
conifer — a tree with needle or scale-like leaves
fascicle — a dense cluster of leaves or needles (far right)
broadleaf — a tree with wide, flat leaves

BROADLEAVES

---

ANATOMY OF A TWIG

terminal bud — a bud that is at the tip of a stem or branch
bud scale — a small modified leaf on the outside of a bud

lateral bud — a bud that is situated along the sides of a branch and not at the tip

lenticel — a corky spot on the bark which originally permitted air to enter the twig

leaf scar — the scar left on a twig when a leaf falls

bud scale scar — the scar left on a twig when a bud scale falls

bundle trace — dot-like scars within a leaf scar, representing the broken ends of ducts which led to the leaf stalk

node — the place on a twig where a leaf is attached

internode — the part of a twig between two nodes
pith — central, usually soft portion of a twig,  chambered piths are divided into empty compartments by cross partitions
thorns and spines (not pictured) — sharp-pointed, rigid structures arising from the twig or leaf

---

ANATOMY OF BROAD LEAVES

apex — the tip or distal end of a leaf margin — the outer edge of a leaf blade leaflet — an individual blade of a compound leaf midrib — the central or main vein of a leaf rachis — the midrib of a compound leaf blade (lamina) — the flat or expanded part of a leaf petiole — stalk of a leaf axilary bud — lateral bud located at the base of a leaf petiole

compound leaf — a type of leaf that has three or more leaflets attached to a common stalkpalmately compound — veins or lobes of a leaf radiating from a central point pinnately compound — arrangement of leaflets attached laterally along the rachis of a compound leaf

---

LEAF ARRANGEMENT

opposite — leaves occurring in pairs at the nodes alternate — leaves arranged singly at intervals along the stems whorled — leaves occurring three or more at a single node

---

LEAF MARGINS

entire — a leaf margin that is smooth without teeth or lobes

undulate — a leaf margin that is wavy

serrate — a leaf margin that has pointed teeth that are directed upward

doubly serrate — a serrate leaf margin where the primary teeth support another set of teeth

crenate — a leaf margin that has rounded teeth

lobed — a segmented leaf having pointed or rounded extensions separated by sinuses that do not extend more than halfway to the midrib
sinus — the space or indentation between the lobes of a leaf blade

---

LEAF TIPS acute — slightly pointed acuminate — sharply pointed bristle-tipped — sharply pointed tip truncate — squared or abruptly cut off obtuse — rounded

---

LEAF BASES cuneate — wedge-shaped obtuse — rounded cordate — heart-shaped truncate — squared or abruptly cut off oblique — asymmetrical, unequally sided

---

TYPES OF FRUITS

berry — a simple, fleshy fruit, with seeds embedded in a pulpy mass (persimmon)

drupe — a one-seeded, fleshy fruit with the seed inclosed in a stony wall (cherry, sugarberry, holly)

capsule — a dry fruit which splits open into two or more parts at maturity (sourwood)

legume — a dry fruit with two seams in the outer wall (black locust)

nut — a hard-shelled, dry fruit, sometimes with a outer covering or husk (hickory, oak acorn, black walnut)

dehiscent — the opening by slits or valves of an outer fruit covering

indehiscent — an outer fruit covering that does not open by slits or valves

pome — a fleshy fruit, with seeds incased by a papery wall (apple)

nutlet — a small nut

samara — a winged, one-cell, one-seeded, dry fruit (elm; double samara — maple)

multiple — a fruit formed from several flowers into a single structure having a common axis

multiple of capsules -- sweetgum
multiple of follicles — magnolia
multiple of samaras — yellow-poplar, ash
multiple of nutlets — sycamore, birch

follicle — a dry fruit with one seam in the outer wall

pendant — hanging or drooping

globular — spherical

bracts -- small leaf or leaf-like structures beneath a flower or flower cluster that sometimes become protectors of the fruit

Owl Eyes - ABC TV Science

click to watch video

An owl's eyes account for up to five percent of their body weight. Having large eyes enables an owl to see in low light conditions, but they've also given rise to the owl's incredible talent for rubber necking.

Owl's eyes can weigh up to five per cent of their bodyweight. That's like us having eyes as big as baseballs. Like us, owls have binocular vision so they can see in three dimensions, which is perfect for watching movies. Their necks have twice as many vertebrae as ours, so they can turn their heads two-hundred-and-seventy degrees, providing three-hundred-and-sixty degree vision.

They have three eyelids, one for blinking, one for sleeping, and a diagonal one that cleans like a windscreen wiper. Owls have extra-large corneas and pupils, and heaps of rod cells, giving them exceptional night vision. But they have fewer cone cells, so they see very little colour.

Owls can't roll their tubular eyes like we roll our spherical ones, which is why they never look exasperated. Their huge eyes give owls a look of wisdom. Ironic really, considering a group of owls is called a 'parliament'

Development of male Northern Bottlenose Whale (Hyperoodon ampullatus) melon

Development of male Northern Bottlenose Whale (Hyperoodon ampullatus) melon, with 1 being the oldest, 4 being the youngest and 5 being a female.

The next illustration has the same subject matter, although 120 years later. It’s fairly similar, although the oldest male head appears even more massive; amazingly, the Southern Bottlenose Whale (Hyperoodon planifrons) apparently has an even larger melon, although is unfortunately rarely photographed.

Gray, D. (1882) Notes on the characters and habits of the bottlenose whale (Hyperoodon rostratus). Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1882 726–731.

Hardy, M. (2005) Extent, Development and Function of Sexual Dimorphisms in the Skulls of the Bottlenose Whales (Hyperoodon spp.) and Cuvier’s Beaked Whale (Ziphius cavirostris). Master’s Thesis for University of Wales, Bangor

Owls

Facts About Owls

By About.com 

Saw-whet owl - Aegolius acadicusView owl pictures

Photo © Iculizard / Shutterstock.

Owls are a group of birds known for their distinct calls, nocturnal habits and silent flight. Owls are familiar to many people because they are often depicted in various ways in popular culture. They rank on par with bats and spiders as the most celebrated of Halloween creatures. Owls also appear as wise and noble characters in many children's stories, including Winnie the Pooh, Mrs. Frisby and the Rats of NIMH and Harry Potter

Here we'll go beyond the myths and the stories of owls to explore ten facts about real-world owls:

FACT: There are about 205 species of owls.

Owls belong to a group of birds that includes about 205 species. These species are sorted into two basic groups, the barn owls and the true owls.

Barn owls have a heart-shaped face, long legs and powerful talons. Barn owls are medium-sized birds with a wingspan of about 3½ feet. There are 16 species of barn owls, including the greater sooty owl, Australasian grass owl, ashy-faced owl, barn owl and Sulawesi owl.

True owls are more diverse than barn owls, with nearly 190 species in about 23 genera. Some better known true owls include screech owls, horned owls and saw-whet owls. True owls vary in size from the tiny elf owl to the bulky Eurasian eagle owl. True owls have a round facial disc, a short tail and a large head. Their color is muted (consisting of mostly brown, rust, gray, white and black) and their pattern is mottled, helping to conceal them from both predators and prey.

FACT: Owls are predators.

Owls feed on a wide variety of prey. Their main food source consists of small mammals such as mice, squirrels, voles and rabbits. They also supplement their diet by feeding on birds, insects and reptiles. Owls cannot chew their prey since, like all birds, they do not have teeth. Instead, they swallow small prey whole. They must tear larger prey into small pieces before swallowing. They later regurgitate pellets of indigestible material such as bone, fur and feathers.

FACT: Most owls are nocturnal.

Most owls hunt at night and in doing so avoid competition with daytime avian hunters such as hawks and eagles. Although nocturnal feeding is the norm for most owls, some species such as burrowing owls and short-eared owls feed during the day. Still other species, such as pygmy owls, feed at dusk or dawn.

FACT: Owls' eyes are fixed in their sockets.

Owls are unable to move their eyes within their sockets to a great extent, which means they must turn their entire head to see in a different direction. Because owls have forward-facing eyes, they have well-developed binocular vision.

FACT: Many species of owls have special flight feathers adapted for silent flight.

Owls have developed special feather adaptations that enable them to minimize the sound made when flapping their wings. For instance, the leading edges of their primary feathers have a stiff fringes that reduces noise while the trailing edge of their primaries have soft fringes that helps to reduce turbulence. Downy feathers cover the surfaces of the wing to further reduce sound.

FACT: Owls have long been a part of human folklore and legend.

Owls are depicted in cave paintings in France that date back 15,000 to 20,000 years. Owls also appear in Egyptian hieroglyphics. They have held a variety of symbolic roles in culture and have represented misfortune, death, prosperity, and wisdom.

FACT: The tufts of feathers atop some owl's heads, referred to as 'ear tufts' are for display only.

Owls' ears are located on the facial disc behind the eyes and are concealed by feathers. Owls have an acute sense of hearing that helps them locate and capture prey. In some species, the ears are located asymmetrically on either side of the facial disc to enhance their ability to pinpoint the origin of the sounds they hear by sensing the minute difference in the time that sound reaches each ear.

FACT: Owls have strong feet like raptors, with two forward-facing toes and two backward-facing toes.

The structure of an owl's foot is referred to as zygodactyl, which means that tow of the toes face forward while two face backward. This arrangement enables the owls to capture and grasp prey with greater ease. Sometimes, the third toe can be rotated forward into a position occasionally used for perching.

FACT: Owls have a long, hooked bill.

In many species, the bill is partly concealed by feathers so it appears smaller than it actually is. Owls use their sharp bill to tear their food.

FACT: Owls do more than just hoot—they create many different vocalizations.

Owls create a wide variety of sounds or vocalisations. The familiar hoot is usually a territorial declaration, though not all species are able to hoot. Other sounds owls might make include screeches, hisses, and screams. Owl vocalizations are loud and low-pitched. Their cries travel well through the night air, enabling them to locate mates and declare territories despite the darkness.